Series 2 Episode 6 - Exiles in Amsterdam (Transcript added).

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Series 2.

Episode 6.

Exiles in Amsterdam.

The year is 15 95.

Calvinism is a significant branch, within the broader Protestant movement.

It emerged during the 16th-century Reformation, and is widely recognised as Reformed Christianity.

This theological tradition, has profoundly impacted the development of Protestantism, and continues to shape its religious beliefs and practices.

Calvinism emphasises the authority of the Bible, the sovereignty of God, and covenant theology.

Today, this faith tradition is primarily represented by Continental Reformed churches, Presbyterian denominations, Congregational groups, and some Anglican and Baptist communities.

Reformed churches, typically prefer simple worship practices, and have various systems of church governance, including Presbyterian, Congregational, and Episcopal structures.

A tradition, developed mainly in Switzerland, Scotland, and the Netherlands during the 16th century.

A key theological tenet, as expounded by John Calvin, is the concept of Christ's "Spiritual Presence" during the Eucharist.

The Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion, the Lord's Supper, or the Mass, is a central Christian sacrament or rite, particularly in the Catholic, Orthodox, and some Protestant traditions.

It commemorates the Last Supper, where Jesus shared bread and wine with his disciples, instructing them to repeat the action in remembrance of him.

It is a symbolic meal that represents the sacrifice of Jesus Christ and his subsequent resurrection, offering believers a way to partake in his body and blood.

In an attempt to define Calvinist doctrine, concerning predestination and justification, Archbishop John Whitgift, in conjunction with the Bishop of London and other prelates, drafted a series of nine doctrinal statements, Known as "The Lambeth Articles of 15 95".

These Articles, were created to address a controversy at Cambridge University, concerning whether God pre-destines humanity to eternal life; or; damnation.

They offer a clear and compelling explanation, of the pre-destinarian system, which teaches:

1. God chooses some individuals for eternal life, while Pre-destining others for damnation.

2. The reason, for Pre-destination to eternal life, is not based on God's foreknowledge of faith and good works, but solely on "His Good Pleasure".

3. The number of the elect is permanently established, and cannot be changed.

4. Those that are not Pre-destined for eternal life will necessarily be damned for their sins.

5. A true, lively, and justifying faith, along with the sanctifying Spirit of God, cannot be lost or taken away, either fully or finally, in the elect.

6. A true believer--someone who possesses justifying faith--has full assurance and certainty of forgiveness and everlasting salvation in Christ.

7. Saving Grace is not given to all people.

8. No one can come to the Son unless the Father draws him, and the Father does not draw all people.

9. It is not within the will or power of every person, to be saved.

When Queen Elizabeth discovered, that the Lambeth Articles had been submitted and discussed at a synod, without her permission, she immediately ordered the recall of the archbishops and prelates and the suppression of the Articles.

Her reaction, was partly due to her unfavourable attitude towards Calvinism in general, preferring the more compromising approach, as seen in her Religious Settlement of 15 59.

Additionally, she was upset that Whitgift took action on a religious matter, without her knowledge or consent, which she wanted to discourage.

However, Whitgift maintained privately, that she had given her approval.

In the 17th century, Jacobus Arminius and the Remonstrants were expelled from the Dutch Reformed Church, due to disagreements, regarding predestination and salvation.

This split, led to the Arminians being recognised, as a separate tradition.

The disagreement, led to the development of the Canons, or statements of Dort, which effectively articulated, the "Doctrines of Grace".

The foundational teachings outlined in the Canons are collectively known as the Five Points of Calvinism, which clarify key theological concepts.

The Canons of Dort is an exposition against Arminianism, outlining the orthodox Reformed view of salvation theology.

The Canons were established, with a purpose similar to that of the Nicene Creed, which aimed to resolve various theological disputes within Christianity.

They affirmed orthodox Christian beliefs, while addressing significant issues, such as Arianism and the Arminian controversy.

Arianism, not to be confused with the racialist ideology of Aryanism, a doctrine viewed as heretical in contemporary Christianity, posits that, “God the Son" is distinct from and subordinate to "God the Father".

he Nicene Creed of 325 AD, identifies, "God the Father" as the, "One God" and "Almighty", describing Jesus Christ as "the Son of God," who is, "Consubstantial with the Father", meaning that he shares the same essence as him.

Although the Holy Spirit is mentioned in this version of the Creed, it is not referred to as "God" or considered equal to the Father.

In the revised version from 381 AD, commonly known as the "Nicene Creed," the Holy Spirit is recognized as being worshipped and glorified alongside the Father and the Son.

The year is 15 96.

Frances Sidney, Countess of Sussex, was born around 15 31 at Penshurst Palace in Kent.

She served as a Lady of the Bedchamber to Queen Elizabeth, and in 15 96, founded Sidney Sussex College Cambridge, to promote the training of ministers.

From its inception, the college was established as a self-declared Protestant foundation.

During Elizabeth’s reign, the number of preachers increased significantly; however, the country still required more.

If a layperson wanted to attend a sermon, they might have to go to a different church to find a minister currently preaching.

Upon arrival, they could discover that the minister had shortened the PrayerBook service to allow more time for their sermon.

Additionally, trained ministers were more likely to offer unscripted, spontaneous prayers, rather than simply reciting the standard prayers contained in the official PrayerBook.

This led to the emergence of two distinct styles within the Church of England:

1. A traditional style that emphasised the liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer.

2. A Puritan style that prioritised preaching, featuring less ceremony and shorter, less scripted prayers.

After Henry Ainsworth and other exiles arrived in Amsterdam, they quickly established an independent church linked to London.

Organising this new community proved to be quite challenging.

As a refuge for the persecuted and destitute, Amsterdam presented a unique but difficult environment for their mission.

Unfortunately, among the three hundred members of Ainsworth's church, there were some whose behaviour did not reflect well on the community.

These individuals were often viewed unfavourably, by both the clergy and the magistrates of the Netherlands, frequently becoming targets of persecution at home and subjects of suspicion while in exile.

Henry Ainsworth, often caught up in controversies beyond his control, was not arrogant; instead, he was a steadfast and cultured advocate for the principles of the early Congregationalists.

Despite these challenges, he diligently continued his studies in Hebrew.

In 15 96, Ainsworth, authored, entirely or in part, the foundational document titled "Confession of Faith of the People, Brownists".

At the same time, in England, Thomas Helwys and his wife Joan, faced accusations of fornication from the churchwardens, which raised questions about the legitimacy of their marriage.

The accusation stated that Thomas had not lawfully married Joan Ashmore, the woman he was living with, as their wedding was considered irregular.

From 15 95 to 15 98, Thomas Cartwright re-visited the Huguenot churches of the Channel-Islands, which he had previously helped to establish.

Later spending his final years in Warwick, where he had once served as the master of the Earl of Leicester's hospital.

He sadly passed away, at the age of 68 on 27 December 16 03.

Cartwright was a cultured and original thinker, but also quite impulsive.

His views were firmly Presbyterian, and he strongly opposed the Brownists and Independents.

He firmly believed in the close relationship between the church and the government, so he probably would not have accepted anyone who didn't follow the beliefs of his reformed national Presbyterian church.

In Babworth Nottinghamshire, during the late 15 90s, the Reverend Richard Clyfton emerged as an important figure, by openly expressing his differing religious beliefs, leading church services that included prayers not found in the official prayer book.

His passionate style quickly attracted a wide range of people from nearby towns and villages, drawing them in, with a promise of a more personal and genuine spiritual experience.

Clyfton was not alone in his efforts; he was part of a larger movement of reform-minded church leaders in the area, who sought to challenge traditional practices, and inspire real change in their communities.

As a result of Clyfton's influence, his congregation began to adopt a more separatist approach, with many people travelling from far and wide to hear him speak.

Among the attendees was William Brewster, who had recently been appointed Scrooby Manor's bailiff by the Archbishop of York.

He also served as a Master of the Queen's Post on the Great North Road.

Each Sunday morning, Brewster travelled south along the Great North Road to Babworth, covering seven or eight miles, despite the challenges he faced during the journey.

He attended church services there and returned to Scrooby late every Sunday afternoon, maintaining this routine for many years.

In 15 93, Sir Peter Wentworth was imprisoned, for the third time, by order of the Queen, this time marking the end, of his previous good fortune.

He died in the Tower of London on 10 November 15 96, without regaining his freedom.

His brother, Paul Wentworth, who was also a Member of Parliament and a prominent Puritan, likely, authored the Puritan devotional book "The Miscellanie, or Registrie and Methodical Directorie of Orizons." Paul passed away in 15 93.

During this period, the recording of speeches and parliamentary debates became more common.

These recordings were captured in the written journals, of Members of Parliament, such as Thomas Cromwell, and were often published.

The public's fascination with political matters was growing, leading to the emergence of concepts, like freedom of speech within parliamentary politics.

Sir Peter Wentworth's contributions, have earned him recognition, as one of the earliest celebrated figures, in English parliamentary history.

The year is 15 97.

In 15 84, Richard Bancroft became the rector of St Andrew Holborn.

The following year, he was appointed treasurer of St. Paul's Cathedral in London, and in 15 86, he became a member of the Ecclesiastical Commission.

Educated at Christ's College Cambridge, Bancroft served as chaplain to Sir Christopher Hatton and John Whitgift, the Archbishop of Canterbury.

He was consecrated as the Bishop of London in June 15 97, a position that held significant power within the Church.

At the time of his consecration, he was 53 years old.

At Lambeth Palace, Bancroft created a vibrant community by surrounding himself with a diverse group of articulate chaplains who shared his intellectual and academic passions.

Whitgift passed his anti-Puritan views on to Bancroft, and many of Bancroft's public speeches reflected these beliefs.

However, Bancroft demonstrated more tolerance towards Catholics than Whitgift did.

He believed, it was essential to distinguish between Catholics who were loyal to the English monarchy, and those aligned with pro-Spanish and Jesuit influences.

Bancroft also sought to understand the beliefs of the Brownists, thoroughly studying the writings of Browne, Moray, Morley, and Barrow.

However, in Bancroft's view, the idea of separation was insincere and hateful.

He believed that if this concept were allowed to take root, it would create significant divisions within society, potentially leading to denominational conflicts that could even escalate into a civil war.

Due to Archbishop Whitgift's age and incapacity, Bancroft, effectively acted as the primate, taking sole responsibility for managing ecclesiastical affairs.

He worked diligently, adhering to the established order of the church, in all his roles.

Bancroft believed that the established structure and hierarchy of the church could protect the poor, from the excesses of the wealthy landowning gentry.

He promoted a tolerance policy, in exchange for loyalty, receiving support from William Cecil.

Among the notable cases he oversaw, were the proceedings against "Martin Marprelate," Thomas Cartwright and his associates, and John Penry, whose so-called "seditious writings" he had gathered and submitted to the authorities.

(Richard Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury.)

(Collection: National Portrait Gallery.) (Date after 16 04.)

The first separatist expedition to North America.

In 15 97, Francis Johnson, and three fellow Brownists, petitioned the Privy Council for the freedom to establish a British colony in Newfoundland.

The council, possibly eager to see him leave, granted the request.

On 8 April 15 97, Francis Johnson and church elder Daniel Studley, departed from Gravesend, aboard the ship Hopewell.

His Brother George, and church member John Clarke, travelled on a second ship, the Chancewell.

The expedition was supported by merchants Abraham and Stephen Van Hardwick, along with the ship's captain, Charles Leigh of Addington.

On 28 April, the Hopewell and Chancewell set sail from Falmouth Cornwall, carrying the four English Separatists, along with a full complement of crew and settlers.

The ships arrived off Newfoundland on 18 May, but they became separated in the fog.

As a result, the Hopewell continued to its destination, the Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, alone.

The Magdalen Islands are a group of islands and beaches located in Canada's south-eastern region of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

These islands, stretching approximately 126 kilometres, are remnants of a landmass once connected to the mainland.

On 18 June 15 97, the Hopewell arrived at the Magdalen Islands, only to find the harbour bustling with activity.

Numerous French and Spanish ships, and hundreds of Indigenous Canadians, who had come from the mainland to hunt and fish were present.

After a skirmish with the European newcomers, the captain decided to try for the north coast of the gulf.

However, the crew refused, prompting the captain, to turn the ship around, and head back to England.

Unknown to Hopewell, the Chancewell had met with disaster, off Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, after experiencing several mishaps and internal conflicts.

Fortunately, while returning to England, the Hopewell was able to rescue the survivors of the Chancewell wreck, near Cape Breton on 28 June, and they continued their journey home.

Captain Leigh successfully brought the survivors back to England, where Francis was reunited with his wife Thomasine.

Francis Johnson and his group made their way to Amsterdam to avoid further imprisonment.

Upon their arrival, Francis Johnson sought admission into Henry Ainsworth's congregation in Amsterdam.

Henry Ainsworth welcomed them, and Johnson resumed his role as their pastor among the exiled separatists, with Ainsworth serving as their teacher.

In 15 97, three of John Smyth's colleagues at Christ College, complained to the university authorities, regarding his refusal to wear the surplice, and use the cross during baptism.

Was this an indication that he was beginning to lean towards mainstream Puritan ideologies?

From 15 97 to 16 07, Thomas Helwys lived at Broxtowe Hall, where he fulfilled his responsibilities as a landowner and raised a family over the next decade.

During this time, the Helwys residence became a sanctuary for early Puritan dissidents from the Church of England, Helwys likely providing financial support for their cause.

At some point, Thomas Helwys developed a close relationship with the dissenter John Smyth, and not long after Thomas and his wife became committed members of Smyth's separatist congregation in Gainsborough Lincolnshire.

Sir William Hickman, the sympathetic owner, allowed approximately sixty separatists in Gainsborough, to gather secretly at the Gainsborough Old Hall.

Gainsborough is situated on the eastern bank of the River Trent.

The town's oldest structure is the manor house on Lord Street, known as Gainsborough Old Hall, which is recognised as one of England's most significant medieval buildings.

The town's regional importance stems mainly from its geographic location.

During Puritan times, there was no bridge over the river, necessitating crossings by various ferries.

Despite being inland, Gainsborough was able to function as a key seaport, supporting the local trade of coal, meat, and grain.

Its advantageous position, near the Great North Road, allowed trade via sea, river and road, actively importing and exporting all manner of goods.

Unfortunately, as a seaport, Gainsborough faced recurrent challenges from diseases such as pestilence and plague, which often claimed the lives of as much as a quarter of its residents.

The year is 15 98.

While in Amsterdam, Francis Johnson participated in a project to create a Latin translation of, "A True Confession of Faith," which had initially been written by Ainsworth in 15 96.

Tensions began to escalate, between Francis and his brother George, regarding the appropriate conduct and dress of Francis's wife Thomasine.

The situation worsened, as Francis adopted a more dictatorial leadership style, aligning himself with individuals like Daniel Studley, whose integrity was in serious doubt.

Henry Ainsworth attempted to prevent a family split, by inviting Johnson's father, John, from London, to help reconcile the two brothers.

Unfortunately, all efforts at reconciliation failed, and in the winter of 15 98, Francis Johnson excommunicated his brother and father from the church.

Daniel Studley, a church elder who had travelled to Newfoundland with Johnson the year before, became involved in a controversy.

He faced accusations of having an inappropriate relationship with his stepdaughter.

Johnson defended his friend and elder, rejecting the charges as unproven, although Studley would later confess to his guilt.

Young William Bradford experienced a series of tragic losses in his early life.

At the age of six, the death of his grandfather forced him to return to the care of his mother and stepfather.

Sadly, his mother passed away just a year later, leaving the seven-year-old William an orphan.

He then came under the sole guardianship of his stepfather, John Hanson, a prosperous tenant farmer in Austerfield.

William was expected to contribute, by working part-time in the fields as part of his upbringing.

The losses of his parents, likely weighed heavily on the young boy's mind.

While we can only imagine the emotional impact of these experiences, we know that William stood to inherit his father's portion of the farm and property, when he turned twenty-one.

For a seven-year-old, those fourteen years must have felt like an eternity.

In 15 98, John Robinson, who was about 24 years old, was appointed as one of the 11 fellows at Cambridge.

In this position, he served as Dean and Lecturer in Greek, a role he would hold for around seven years.

Robinson was ordained as an Anglican priest, at around the age of 20, and obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree by 22.

Shortly after his appointment, he began to take a series of extended leaves of absence.

Since college fellows were prohibited from marrying, Robinson resigned his fellowship, to marry Bridget White on 15 February 16 04, at St. Mary's Church in Greasley Nottinghamshire.

This posed a problem for the couple, because he had enjoyed free housing and meals as part of his fellowship benefits, together with a modest salary.

Bridget, now 25 years old, was the daughter of Alexander and Eleanor White, who were once prosperous yeoman farmers from Sturton le Steeple, but had passed away by the time of the wedding.

At the time of her marriage, Bridget was living near Greasley, approximately 10 miles from Thomas Helwys's estate at Broxtowe Hall.

Her home was situated on land previously belonging to Beauvale Abbey, and was held under a 99-year lease agreement.

This property had come into her family's possession through her older brother, Charles, who inherited it as part of their father's estate.

(St Mary's Church, Greasley Nottinghamshire.)

Richard Bernard, earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in 15 95 and obtained a Master of Arts in 15 98, from Cambridge University.

During his time at Cambridge, he likely attended lectures by William Perkins, a fellow at Christ's College.

Perkins was part of a "spiritual brotherhood” that drew inspiration from various Reformed theologians from the continent, such as Beza, Zanchi, and Ursinus, all of whom influenced Bernard's theological perspectives.

In the late 15 00s and early 16 00s, a "spiritual brotherhood" emerged among the Puritans, shaped by the reformative activity, and training at Cambridge.

Six individuals, stand out among this group of thinkers, for their significant contributions to advancing the gospel.

They are William Perkins, Paul Baynes, Richard Sibbes, John Cotton, John Preston, and Thomas Shepard.

These theologians initiated a renewed emphasis within the established church, promoting a deeper understanding of the Reformation teachings on Grace and encouraging preaching, with the aim of development, religious conversion and devotion.

Bernard likely attended Perkins' lectures at Christ's College and may have even formed a personal connection with him.

While studying at Christ's, Bernard would have also been acquainted with John Smyth.

In 15 98, both Bernard and Smyth left the University for Different Reasons.

Bernard left after receiving his MA, while Smyth departed, due to his marriage and opposition to particular Church of England practices.

Bernard was appointed to a parish in Epworth Lincolnshire, shortly after leaving college.

Queen Elizabeth's chief advisor, William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, passed away on 4 August 15 98 at the age of 77.

After his father's death, Robert Cecil took on his political role and became the head of the government.

One of his key responsibilities was to ensure a smooth transition of power.

Since Elizabeth refused to publicly designate an heir, Cecil secretly engaged in coded negotiations with James VI of Scotland, who had a legitimate but unrecognized claim to the throne.

In 15 98, William Brewster, was summoned to appear before an ecclesiastical court, due to his, "Irregular church attendance" at St. Wilfred's Church in Scrooby, likely because of his frequent visits to Babworth.

The local clergy and churchwardens had informed his patron and employer, the Archbishop of York, about Brewster's frequent absences.

This was a clear warning, regarding the risk of losing his valued position and residence at Scrooby Manor.

Despite this warning, Brewster continued his journeys to Babworth.

And so, later that year, he faced another charge.

This time, he was accused on the presentment bill of, "publicly repeating sermons in church, without authority".

In his defence, Brewster explained that the villages of Scrooby and Bawtry were so close that they could only sustain a single preacher, who alternated Sundays between them.

When a preacher was unavailable to deliver a sermon, Brewster would step forward to address the congregation.

With the support of influential allies from the area, Brewster succeeded in having the charges dropped.

However, his visits to Babworth had emboldened him, and so, he was no longer content to be a passive observer in the Puritan community.

William Brewster was a founding member of the Scrooby Separatist religious group, which later became the core of the Pilgrim congregation. After settling in Leiden, Brewster assumed the role of Elder within the Pilgrim Separatist community.

When he and his fellow Pilgrims journeyed to America aboard the Mayflower in 16 20, he served as the spiritual guide for Plymouth Colony, as there was no ordained minister among them.

The authorities relentlessly persecuted the Separatists around Scrooby and Gainsborough, but they were not the only groups experiencing oppression for their beliefs.

Throughout the 15 90s, authorities spied on and arrested disaffected congregations in London, often imprisoning and executing their leaders, which forced many to seek exile in Holland.

In East Anglia, individuals who attended John Robinson's sermons faced fines or imprisonment.

In 15 98, Thomas Helwys and his wife faced accusations of fornication from churchwardens, who questioned the validity of their marriage.

In the coastal town of Sandwich Kent, the non-conformist Mary Chilton, her husband James, Richard Masterson, Moses Fletcher, and six other women faced excommunication imprisonment and most likely banishment for their actions.

Also in Kent, the non-conformist layman Robert Cushman, was excommunicated and served a short sentence, in the jail above the Westgate in Canterbury.

Canterbury was first recorded as the main settlement of the Celtic tribe, the Cantiaci, which inhabited most of modern-day Kent.

In the 1st century AD, the Romans captured the settlement, and named it Durovernum Cantiacorum.

The name, which can be loosely translated from Latin, means "Stronghold of the Cantiaci", thereby retaining the identity of the original Celtic settlement.

In the late 3rd century, the town was enclosed by defensive walls constructed by the Romans, along with single-arched gateways.

The Westgate is a medieval gatehouse located in Canterbury Kent.

Standing 60 feet (18 m) high, this western gate of the city wall is England's largest surviving medieval city gate.

Built of Kentish ragstone around 13 79, it is the last remaining one of Canterbury's seven medieval gates, and it remains well-preserved as one of the city's most distinctive landmarks.

The year is 15 99.

Oliver Cromwell was born on 25 April 15 99, in Huntingdon.

He is regarded as one of the most significant politicians in English history, serving as a politician and a soldier.

Cromwell was educated at Sidney Sussex College Cambridge, and was elected as the Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 16 28.

Huntingdon is a market town in the Huntingdonshire district of Cambridgeshire England.

The town received its charter from King John in 12 05, and served as the county town of the historic county of Huntingdonshire.

During the 16 30s, Cromwell adopted the beliefs of a religious Independent, crediting his subsequent accomplishments to divine providence.

While he generally promoted tolerance among various Protestant sects, he later opposed groups he considered heretical; such as the Quakers and the radical Puritan faction known as the Fifth Monarchists.

The Fifth Monarchists believed that the end times were near, and anticipated the imminent return of Christ, to rule the Earth.

Also known as the Fifth Monarchy Men, this Protestant group held Millennialist beliefs, and was active in England from 16 49 to 16 60.

Millenarianism is the doctrine or belief in a future thousand-year age of blessedness, which begins with or culminates in the Second Coming of Christ.

This belief is central, to groups such as the Adventists, Latter-day Saints or Mormons, and Jehovah's Witnesses.

The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions, which teach that negative world events will reach a climax.

The scope of expected consequence is global and not local.

Eschatology, concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or even the end of the world itself.

In the 16 40s, George Fox, a young man and the son of a weaver, left his home in the English Midlands, to embark on a spiritual journey across the country.

Born in 16 24 in England, Fox displayed a strong inclination toward spirituality from a young age, driven by a deep desire, for a religiously centred life.

After experiencing a profound spiritual awakening in 16 47, he began to articulate his beliefs, emphasizing the importance of "Inward Revelation", and the presence of Christ within all individuals.

His teachings challenged established religious norms and advocated for a personal connection to spirituality, free from the interpretations of clergy.

Fox’s ministry faced considerable opposition, leading to multiple arrests, and confrontations with traditional religious authorities.

Despite these challenges, he attracted many followers, particularly during a period of intense political and religious turmoil in England.

His vision for a society, based on equality and non-violence, laid the foundation for Quakerism, promoting values such as social justice, pacifism, and the spiritual equality of all people.

The term "Quaker", originated as a derogatory nickname, stemming from the group's belief in a biblical passage, instructing people to, "Tremble at the Word of the Lord".

Eventually, the group embraced the term, although its official name became The Religious Society of Friends, with its members referred to as Friends or Quakers.

Several Quaker beliefs were considered radical, including the idea that women and men are spiritual equals, and that women, can speak during worship services.

Fox's legacy significantly influenced social reforms and religious ideas.

He passed away in 16 91, having founded a vibrant religious movement, that highlighted the importance of compassion and inner spirituality.

Quakers are often regarded as mainline Protestants.

According to their interpretation of the Bible, Quakers are pacifists and refuse to take legal oaths, extending their fight for human rights to many areas of society.

Central to their beliefs, is the idea that everyone has the Light of Christ within them, and that all human beings are equal and deserving of respect.

In the early days, Quaker views toward women were remarkably progressive, and by the 19th century, many Quakers became active in the movement for women's rights.

The Quaker campaign to end slavery can be traced back to the late 16 00s, with many members later playing pivotal roles in the Underground Railroad.

In 17 76, Quakers were prohibited from owning slaves, and only 14 years later, they petitioned the U.S. Congress for the abolition of slavery.