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The Protestant Boy King.

ish Reformation, began in the: 1530

In 1533, Henry VIII had sought permission from Pope Clement VII, to annul his marriage; however, his request was denied.

As a result, Parliament, supported the King's claim of being the Supreme Head of the Church of England, and granted him the authority, to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, allowing him to lawfully marry, Anne Boleyn.

Thomas Cromwell, the chief minister to Henry VIII, aimed to guide this newly formed Church of England, towards evangelical principles, while also pushing for important reforms.

He emerged as one of the key advocates of the English Reformation, playing a vital role in shaping effective governance in England.

During this time, Henry often shifted his support, between his Protestant and traditional advisers, while many in England, still identified themselves as non-Protestant.

The origins of Puritanism, can be traced back to the early stages of the English Reformation.

The term, "Puritan", was initially used as a derogatory label by their opponents.

he term first appeared in the: 1560

During this period, King Henry VIII rejected the authority of the Pope, effectively transforming the Church of Rome, into the national Church of England.

However, the Puritans believed, that this new Church of England, retained too many of the rituals and liturgical practices, associated with Roman Catholicism, creating tensions with mainstream Protestants.

The Puritans opposed the symbolic use of traditional clerical attire, preferring their ministers to wear simple black gowns, aiming to replace, the ornate rituals of the medieval Church, with straightforward services, that focused on prayer and preaching.

ditionally, in Europe, by the: 1540

John Calvin was born on 10 July 1509 in Picardy, France.

He was a French theologian, and pastor in Geneva, during the Protestant Reformation, and recognised as a leading figure in its movement.

Calvin’s interpretation of Christianity, is encapsulated in his seminal work, "Institutio Christianae Religionis," or "Institutes of the Christian Religion", first published in Basel Switzerland.

The work, is a foundational piece of Systematic Theology, which aims to provide, a logical and understandable explanation, of Christian beliefs.

Aimed at those, with some theological background, it covers Protestant doctrine, the Trinity, church teachings, the sacraments, faith-based salvation, and Christian liberty.

Calvin's conversion from Catholicism to Protestantism, led him to question Catholic teachings, significantly impacting his Protestant theology.

His work, "Institutes," became a foundational text for Reformed Churches, and the adoption of Calvinist doctrine, is of great significance in religious history.

ginally published in Latin in: 1536

Life, for Protestant heretics in France, was becoming increasingly dangerous, and so, in 1534, John Calvin left his homeland for safety, travelling through several cities, before finally returning to Geneva.

Whilst there, he met William Farel, who urged him to stay, and help him to support, the city's Protestant churches.

Despite Calvin’s reluctance, and preference for study over preaching, Farel famously declared, “May God curse you and your studies if you turn away from the divine calling.”

Ultimately Calvin agreed to stay, beginning a lifelong friendship.

Calvin, shy and reserved, and initially supported by the City Council, unexpectedly became the religious leader of Protestant Geneva.

Once in control, he established a totalitarian regime, that aimed to eliminate Catholicism, and any behaviour, deemed immoral.

Religious police, conducted home inspections to enforce strict regulations, banning practices like rosaries, and naming children after saints.

Art, music, and theatre faced suppression, while personal attire and dietary choices were regulated.

Offences such as gambling and heresy, could lead to harsh punishments, such as exile or even execution.

The press faced censorship, and education was heavily influenced by religion, with new schools focused, on subjects like mathematics and biblical languages.

The municipality, took control of all charitable activities, ensuring they were aligned with Calvin's vision.

The institutional and social frameworks, developed by Calvin in Geneva, would leave a lasting impact on Protestantism, across Europe and North America.

Calvinism, founded by theologian John Calvin, teaches "Unconditional Election," which means God's choice, of who is saved, is not influenced, by anything external.

It is based on the belief, that humanity is inherently wicked, and cannot choose God, so salvation comes solely from God's grace, to those He has chosen.

In contrast, Arminianism, led by theologian Jacobus Arminius, promotes "Conditional Election", suggesting, that individuals, can choose to follow God, and that God knows in advance who will believe, and elects them based on that choice.

n Calvin to stay in Geneva in: 1536

Calvin initially faced resistance, resulting in a brief banishment in 1538, which was later lifted by Bern, allowing him to preach again.

While Farel moved to Neuchâtel, and lived there until his death, he and Calvin kept in touch.

In: 1558

Farel passed away on 13 September 1565, after preaching in Metz, and a monument in his honour, was unveiled in Neuchâtel on 4 May 1876.

Luther, in contrast to John Calvin and Philipp Melanchthon, firmly believed throughout his life, that it was not a false doctrine, to hold, that a Christian's soul sleeps, after it separates from the body at death.

This belief, reinforced his view, of the continuity of one's identity, beyond physical death.

He also rejected the existence of Purgatory, which involved Christian souls, undergoing penitential suffering after death.

The concept of Purgatory, as a physical location, was officially recognised as a teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, toward the end of the 11th century.

Theologians in the Middle Ages, concluded, that the penalties in Purgatory, were represented by actual fire.

The Catholic Church teaches, that the living can ,aid, those in Purgatory, through prayers and indulgences, serving, as a means of intercession.

In: 1542

However, he didn't exhibit much interest in its practices, famously remarking, "Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the Papacy, and other false Christians live".

He strongly supported the idea of the open publication of the Qur'an, arguing that it should be subject to the same level of scrutiny as Christianity.

February: 1546

He was laid to rest in the Schlosskirche in Wittenberg, positioned in front of the pulpit.

His teachings and actions, transformed key Christian principles, which would ultimately lead to the division of Western Christendom into Roman Catholicism and the various Protestant denominations, including Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, Presbyterianism, Quakers, Baptists and Anabaptists.

h Zwingli was born in January: 1484

Zwingli believed, that the State was governed solely, by divine authority, meaning, that both the Church and the State, were under the sovereign rule of God.

He also mentioned, that while Christians had a duty to obey the government, civil disobedience was justified, when authorities acted contrary to God's will.

Alongside Heinrich Bullinger, Zwingli would often engage in debates with their students and followers, who were frustrated by the slow progress of the Reformation.

During these discussions, they would also question, the practice of infant baptism.

Zwingli emphasised, the communal study of sacred texts, fostering a sense of unity among the young men, and reinforcing their involvement in the Protestant movement.

January: 1525

The events of that fateful evening, had been the culmination of a lengthy process, of thought and debate.

The term "Anabaptism," which means "baptised again," was initially used as a derogatory label, but over time, it was embraced as a badge of honour.

Realising the gravity of the recent events, Zwingli sought to clamp down on further discussions, in an attempt to manage the situation, and lessen any potential backlash.

As a result, he banned future debates, and the authorities quickly supported him, by prohibiting all further gatherings.

However, it was already too late, to change the course of events, that were now unfolding.

ring the Swiss Kappel Wars of: 1531

When the Catholic Cantons retaliated with an attack, Zurich was caught off guard, and Zwingli was killed in the ensuing battle.

Zwingli's legacy, endures, in the confessions, liturgy, and church orders of today's Reformed Churches, where his spiritual contribution, continues to shape, their practices and beliefs.

Anabaptism arose, during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, and is based on a belief, regarding baptism, that differs from that of the Catholic Church.

The movement's most defining principle, is the practice of adult baptism.

In its early years, converts underwent a second baptism, which was considered a capital offence, under the legal codes of the time.

Members of the movement, rejected the term "Anabaptist", viewing their infant baptisms as mere formalities, and devoid of any sacred significance, believing, that only adult baptism - following a public confession of sin and faith, was valid.

Their perspective, aligns with Zwingli's view, that infants, should not be held accountable for sin, until they can distinguish between right and wrong, and can therefore ,choose to repent, and receive baptism.

Furthermore, the Anabaptists believed, that the Church, as a community made up of individuals, who have publicly committed to their faith, should remain separate from the state.

As a result, they faced intense persecution, due to their beliefs about baptism, and the perceived threats they posed, to the political and social order.

The Anabaptist movement, has influenced various Christian groups, including modern Baptists, Quakers, and Mennonites.

roup of Anabaptists formed in: 1525

Key leaders Konrad Grebel and Felix Manz, challenged infant baptism, advocating that only those who publicly profess faith in Jesus Christ, should belong to the church.

Despite persecution, the movement grew, before becoming scattered throughout Europe.

Today, Mennonites are found in many countries, especially in the United States and Canada.

In January: 1547

He was the first English monarch raised to be as a Protestant.

y led by Edward Seymour until: 1549

During Edward's reign, Protestant beliefs were incorporated into a new liturgy, resulting in the creation of the 1549 Book of Common Prayer, subsequently revised in 1552.

Many traditional practices were abolished, such as praying for the dead, while clergy, were now allowed to marry.

In July: 1543

However, With Edward VI's support, new legislation, reinstated Mary and Elizabeth as potential successors, after Edward and any future children, but certain pre-conditions complicated their positions.

t, enacted the Treason Act of: 1547

This law, is significant, because it established the precedent, that two witnesses are required to substantiate charges of treason.

His reign, saw Protestant reformers, aiming for significant changes, in the Church of England.

As a result, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, still in regular communication with Continental reformers, decided to invite the Italian Reformed theologian, Peter Vermigli, to assist in their efforts.

Vermigli was recognised primarily as a scriptural teacher, and his influence is particularly noted, for his doctrine of the Eucharist.

Unlike the Catholic doctrine of Transubstantiation, Vermigli, did not believe, that the bread and wine were transformed into Christ's body and blood.

He also disagreed, with the Lutheran view, that Christ's body is omnipresent, and can be physically present, during the Eucharist.

Instead, Vermigli taught that Christ remains in Heaven; however, he is offered to those who partake, in the Eucharist and receive it from true believers.

Vermigli accepted Cranmer's invitation, and travelled to England, from the Holy Roman Empire in November, where he had been elected, Canon of St. Thomas Church in Strasbourg.

In: 1548

His situation, changed dramatically in 1549, with the PrayerBook Rebellion, which forced Vermigli to flee to Lambeth Palace in London, to join Cranmer.

The conflict, arose in response to conservative opposition, to the new vernacular liturgy, which was introduced by the Book of Common Prayer, and came to a head during Pentecost.

This Christian holiday, occurs fifty days after Easter, and marks the moment when the Holy Spirit descended upon Jesus' twelve disciples.

The key reform during Edward's reign, was the introduction of an English liturgy, replacing Latin ceremonies.

nues to use variations of the: 1549

This Prayer Book, incorporates the doctrine of Justification by Faith, while rejecting Catholic beliefs, like Transubstantiation and the sacrifice of the Mass, viewing the Eucharist, as a remembrance of Christ's sacrifice instead.

While reflecting Cranmer's Protestant theology, the book also retains some traditional forms and language from medieval Catholic liturgies.

nal, which led to the revised: 1552

Peter Martyr Vermigli, was born on 8 September 1499, in Florence, and became a leading figure in the Italian religious reform movement, particularly known for his focus on Eucharistic theology.

His early reform efforts, played an essential role, in encouraging many Italians to embrace Protestantism, in a predominantly Catholic Italy.

After fleeing to Protestant northern Europe, Vermigli made significant contributions, to establishing a vibrant community of Protestant refugees in Geneva.

His influence also reached the English Reformation, where he had a notable impact on Thomas Cranmer.

While staying in Lambeth for safety, Vermigli got involved in the political situation, of the English Church.

However, once the religious matters regarding the new liturgy were resolved, he was able to return to Oxford.

In the winter of: 1549

In 1550, Vermigli and Martin Bucer, proposed changes to the Eucharistic liturgy, for Cranmer's consideration.

Before their encounter, Cranmer's views on the Eucharist, leaned more towards Lutheranism; however, Vermigli likely persuaded him to adopt a more Reformed perspective, ultimately changing the course of the English Reformation.

This transformation, prompted Cranmer to revise the Book of Common Prayer, and draft the Forty-Two Articles of Religion.

England, Vermigli revised the: 1552

Some historians suggest, he may have even contributed to the Predestination article, in the 1553 Forty-Two Articles of Religion.

His theological influence, was significant in shaping, the Elizabethan Religious Settlement.

In: 1562

First printed in Latin in 1576, this work addressed, key issues of the Protestant Reformation, and became a standard textbook in Reformed theology, especially among English students in the seventeenth century.

The English version, reached the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and was highly regarded by Puritan scholars at Harvard College, often even more than Calvin's writings.

November: 1562

He is best known for his critiques of the Catholic doctrine of Transubstantiation, advocating instead, for the Reformed Doctrine, of Sacramental Presence.

Vermigli's political theology, influenced the Elizabethan religious settlement, by supporting Royal Supremacy—the principle asserting, that the King governs the Church within his territory, rather than any ecclesiastical authority.

Vermigli developed his doctrine of double Predestination, independently of John Calvin, believing, God's will, determines both salvation and damnation, aligning closely with Calvin's views.

However, unlike Calvin, he did not see Predestination as central to his theology.

igious establishment, saw the: 1549

Reformers, including Archbishop Cranmer, criticised the ornate services, and pushed for changes, leading to the 1552 revision, that aimed, to further align the Church, with Protestantism.

The newly revised Book of Common Prayer, was introduced, just six months before Edward VI's death, making significant changes to its liturgy.

They included the addition of daily opening sentences from Scripture, as well as the Exhortation, Confession, and Absolution for both Morning and Evening Prayer.

The Communion service was also modified, to clarify the traditional Catholic doctrine, regarding the real presence of Christ, in the sacraments, making it even more ambiguous.

From November: 1552

The service, often features a prayer of thanksgiving, a gathering of the community, petitions seeking God's forgiveness for sins, scripture readings, a sermon, and collective prayer.

Today, many Protestant churches, regularly observe the Eucharist, as an integral part of a believer's life.